ACADEMIC REQUIREMENTS FOR UNDERGRADUATE STUDY
Most colleges are aware of our educational system. You should have completed 12 years of school/PUC. Planning must begin for the application process when you are completing 11 years of education. Colleges differ in their competitiveness; most colleges demand a very brilliant academic record, others may be flexible.
Most admission's committees have preset admission criteria and you have to fit into their expectations for the courses you wish to take. They examine judiciously your application looking into the following:
- Previous academic record
- Performance on a standardized scholastic aptitude test.
- Records of interests and co-curricular record
- Personal statement of objectives and goals
- Recommendations from the counselor/teacher/principal
- Financial requirements
- English language proficiency
Academic record
1800 accredited colleges and universities offer 4-year bachelor's degree programs. Admission's committee of these colleges generally evaluates academic standards taking a comparative perspective. A competitive program demands high academic standards. Though academic records are fairly reliable indicators to scholastic acumen, most admission officers prefer to get a comprehensive picture of your achievements than just rely on academic scores.
Institutions generally specify the type of official records they require to assess past education. Usually the applicant is required to give a complete record of secondary education. Most application forms have a separate page for secondary school report on which school authorities transcribe grades and appraise the applicant's relative academic performance. Such academic records are substantiated with explanation of the grading and ranking system used while evaluating the applicant's academic performance. Often course descriptions help the admission committee assess the course structure which may give a very fair rating to our curriculum
STANDARDIZED TESTS FOR UNDERGRADUATES ADMISSIONS
Universities in the US require an applicant to take certain tests, scores of which are used before admission to a college is considered. Each university defines its own requirement for test scores but all applicants need to take some kind of academic tests.
In the absence of national tests for university entrance, as in a number of countries, USA higher education institutions need a comparative estimate of the educational level and background of applicants. Hence tests prepared and administered by testing organizations are used. The largest such organization is the Educational Testing Service (`ETS') with its main office in Princeton, New Jersey. The ETS administers academic tests such as SAT, Graduate Record Examination (GRE), Graduate Management Admission Test (GMAT) and English proficiency tests such as: TOEFL, Test of Spoken English (TSE), Test of Written English (TWE), etc. Student must register for the tests the score of which will be required for his applying to a university. The student pays a fee for this service. The organization conducts scores and reports the test scores to the university. A large network of test centres has been set up by the ETS. It requires adequate time and planning for taking the test so that scores arrive when you need them. Undergraduate applicants may need to take the following tests:
Scholastic aptitude test
- Scores on Standardized tests like the SAT (I)Reasoning Test and the SAT II Subject Tests help colleges compare the academic achievements of students from different schools because courses and grading standards vary from school to school. SAT scores help you to compare your reasoning abilities and academic strengths with millions of students who take these tests each year. Find out if the colleges you're interested in require the SAT or Subject Tests for admission or placement by contacting the colleges or, searching online at www.collegeboard.com
- The SAT is administered seven times a year -- usually in October, November, December, January, March, May and June -- on Saturday mornings. Special arrangements for schedule changes are available.
The SAT is a three-hour & 45 minute test. There are ten sections in the test.
| Section | Type of Questions | Length |
| Reading (3 sections) | Sentence Completions | Total 1 hour 10 min |
| Reading Comprehension | ||
| Writing (3 sections) | Grammar | |
| Essay | Total 1 hour | |
| Math (3 sections) | Multiple-choice | Total 1 hr 10 min |
| Experimental section Not counted while scoring | Reading, Writing, or Math | 25 minutes |
NOTE: The order of the format can be in any order.
Preparing for SAT (I)Reasoning Test and SAT (II)Subjects Test - Like any course work, preparation needs to be made for the SATs. Indian students taking the maths course at the +2 level may find maths easy but most students need intensive preparations for the verbal section of SAT (I)Reasoning Test . It is rich in vocabulary and applicants need careful preparations. Subject matter in SAT (II) subjects test generally is of the +2 level and content is quite similar but your preparation for specific topics needs to be perfect. The test bulletin includes sample test questions. Practice tests are also available from the testing organization. SAT (I) and SAT (II) guide books with practice tests can be bought from bookshops.
Address of the administering agency is as follows:
SAT Program College Board, Post Box 6200, Princeton, N J - 08541-6200 USA.
English proficiency tests
Applicants have to furnish proof of their English language ability. This is recognition of the importance of language competence in the academic success of students from other countries. Most colleges in the US require scores on the TOEFL. Among other examinations acceptable to some institutions are the University of Michigan, English Language Institute Test and the test of the American Language Institute of Georgetown University (ALIGU). All institutions in the US do require attainment of a specified level of English proficiency and even conduct intensive English programs to help students bridge minor deficiencies.
The TOEFL tests English language proficiency for reading, listening and writing. TOEFL is developed and administered by the US-based "Educational Testing Service" (ETS). ETS sets the questions, conducts the test, and sends each examinee the score report. For the conduct of the test, ETS has appointed Testing Agencies in various countries, which act as franchisee for ETS. In India, this agency is the "Prometric Testing Services Pvt Ltd" which administers the test on behalf of ETS.
TOEFL is accepted by more institutions than any other English-language test in the world — including the top colleges and universities. There are about 6,000+ institutions in 110 countries including almost every university in the USA, UK, Australia, New Zealand and Canada, that rely on TOEFL scores for admissions, scholarship and graduation decisions.
The entire test is taken in one day and there are more than 4,000 test centers to choose from. The candidate can retake the test in just 7 days, if he/she wants to improve their scores.
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Format for TOEFL
TOEFL is offered in two formats: Internet-based Test (iBT) or the Paper-based Test (PBT). In India however the test is offered in Internet-based Test (iBT).
The TOEFL iBT measures how well the candidate can read, listen, speak and write in English and use these skills together in the university classroom. The TOEFL iBT requires candidates to combine 2 or more of these skills to respond to a question. For example, candidate might read a passage or listen to a lecture in English, and then write or speak their answers in English.
The structure of the TOEFL tests are enumerated belowSection Description Testing Time Questions Score Scale Reading 3-5 passages from academic texts; approximately 700 words long; 12-14 questions per passage. 600-100 Minute 36-70 Questions 0-30 Listening 4-6 lectures, some with classroom discussion; each 3-5 minutes long; 6 questions each. 2-3 conversations; each 3 minutes long; 5 questions each. 60-90 Minutes 34-51 Questions 0-30 Break - 10 Minutes - - Speaking 2 tasks to express an opinion on a familiar topic; 4 tasks to speak based on what is read and listened to. 20 Minutes 6 Tasks 0-4 points converted to 0-30 score scale Writing 1 task to write based on what is read and listened to; 1 task to support an opinion on a topic. 50 Minutes 2 Tasks 0-5 points converted to 0-30 score scale Total Score - - - 0-120 Anybody can appear for the TOEFL. There are no restrictions based on age or qualifications. The validity period of TOEFL Scores is two years, i.e., most universities accept scores up to two years old.
ACADEMIC REQUIREMENT FOR GRADUATE STUDY
The following qualifications have been acknowledged as a basic degree for entry into a graduate program. Graduate degree of 4 year duration.
Diploma in engineering accredited by the Association of Institution of Engineers of India is accepted for admission to MS programs in the US. Even engineering BE, B Tech, BSc degree is acceptable for admission to engineering, agriculture, architecture disciplines. Qualified chartered accountants cost and work accountants can seek admission to graduate degrees in accountancy or management.
STANDARDIZED TESTS FOR GRADUATES ADMISSIONS
Most academic graduate faculties in a university have autonomy to decide entrance requirements for various courses. It is often necessary to write to the institution directly to find out which tests would be required for the course you wish to do. Students seeking admission to graduate programs in engineering, physics, maths, chemistry and other academic disciplines will generally be expected to furnish GRE scores.
Graduate record examination (GRE)
The Graduate Record Examination (GRE) general test is the computer-based examination taken by students who want to pursue non-management, post-graduation educational options in the United States of America. The GRE general test is a 2,400 mark exam, modified with effect from October 1, 2002, into a 1,600 mark exam, with changes in the test sections, marks and pattern. The examination, however, continues to remain in the computer-based format.
The revised GRE General Test format comprises verbal, quantitative, and analytical writing sections. While the verbal and quantitative sections remain unchanged, the analytical writing section is identical to the stand-alone test, known as the writing assessment. The following are the three sections which make up the revised GRE
General Test format:
- Verbal: This is a 30-minute section containing 30 multiple-choice questions. This section tests the ability to analyze and evaluate written material and assimilate information obtained from the same. It attempts to make an analysis of relationships among component parts of sentences, as well as recognize relationships between words and concepts.
- Quantitative: A 30 minute section containing 28 multiple-choice questions, this section tests conceptual clarity in arithmetic, algebra, geometry, and data analysis: Quantitative reasoning, Ability to solve problems in a quantitative setting
- Analytical writing: This is the new 75-minute section comprising two analytical writing tasks. This section tests the student for clear and effective articulation of complex ideas, to examine claims and accompanying evidence to substantiate ideas or theories and the ability to use supporting ideas with relevant reasons and examples. The section further checks if the student is able to sustain a well-focused and coherent discussion, while controlling the elements of standard written English.The analytical writing section comprises two analytical writing tasks, detailed below:
A 45-minute `Present Your Perspective on an Issue' task. This task gives an opinion on an issue of general interest and asks the test taker to address the issue from any perspective that he/ she wants to, along with relevant reasons and examples to support your views.
A 30-minute `analyze an argument' task. It requires the test taker to critique an argument by discussing how well he reasoned/ she finds it. The test-taker is asked to consider the logical soundness of the argument rather than to agree or disagree with the position it presents'. `
Scoring: The scoring of the verbal and quantitative sections of the general test will not change in the revised format, and continue to depend on speed and accuracy of the test taker. Since both these sections are computer based, the difficulty level of the questions, and accordingly the marks for each question, is based on the test taker's performance in the questions that he/she has answered earlier.
In the analytical writing section, each essay receives a score from two trained readers, using a six-point holistic scale, in holistic scoring; scores are assigned on the basis of the overall quality of an essay in response to the assigned task. If the two assigned scores differ by more than a point on the scale, the discrepancy is adjudged by a third reader; else, the average is taken. The final scores of the two essays are then averaged and rounded up to the nearest half-point interval. A single score is reported for the analytical writing section.
Based on the above, three scores will be reported on the revised GRE General Test:
A verbal score reported on the existing 200-800 verbal score scale, in 10-point increments. A quantitative score reported on the existing 200-800 quantitative score scale, in 10-point increments. An analytical writing score reported on the existing 0-6 writing assessment score scale, in half-point increments.
Computer Based Test (CBT)/ Computer Adaptive Test (CAT): The GRE general test continues to remain a CBT/CAT examination, which is scored differently as compared to paper-and-pencil tests.
The score on a CAT depends on a combination of factors that includes: the statistical characteristics of questions answered throughout the test, including difficulty level the number of questions answered within the allotted time and your performance on questions answered throughout the test. This means that the greater the number of questions you answer correctly, the difficulty level in the questions increases. Moreover, questions with a higher difficulty level have a higher weight in the scores. In fact, different test takers will get different questions,
Graduate management admission test (GMAT)
Graduate business schools usually require applicants to take the GMAT which is a test for measuring general verbal, mathematical and analytical skills. GMAT seeks to assess these skills developed over a long period of time. GMAT scores are used by fellowship sponsors as well as universities in Canada, Britain and Australia
About the Computer Adaptive Test (GMAT CAT)- The GMAT CAT was introduced in 1997 and can now be taken throughout the year in hundreds of locations around the world. The CAT requires minimal computer skills.
The advantages of the computer test are that you can take the test when you're ready instead of having to pick from only four dates. You take the test in a quiet cubicle not a crowded testing room. Registration can be done over the phone. Quantitative and verbal scores are given immediately.
In the CAT, the computer screen displays one question at a time, chosen from a very large pool of questions organized by their content and level of difficulty. The first question in a computer-adaptive test is always of medium difficulty. The questions that follow are determined by your responses to all previous questions.
The CAT adjusts to your ability level - you'll get few questions that are either too easy or too difficult. You must enter an answer for each question, and you may not return to or change your response to any previously answered question. If you guess or answer a question incorrectly by mistake, your answers to the questions that follow will lead you back to the questions that are the appropriate level of difficulty for you. The test fee is $195. Optimum score is 800 though a score of 650 and above is excellent and acceptable to most universities of repute. GMAT bulletin can be requisitioned from:
Graduate Management Admission Test, Educational Testing Service, CN 6103, Princeton, New Jersey 08541-6103 USA
GMAT can be taken by students with disabilities. Information and registration form in made available from:
GMAT services for test taken with disabilities.
Education Testing Service,
Mail Stop O5-2,
Princeton, NJ O8541
Registration for the GMAT Computer Adaptive Test can be made by phone, fax or mail. The regional centre in India is:
Sylvan Testing Services Pvt. Ltd., 1st Floor, Aeron Plaza 21, LSC,
Pushp Vihar, Madangir, New Delhi - 110 062 India
The test format - GMAT CAT has verbal, quantitative and analytical sections. The questions on data sufficiency and problem solving are in the quantitative section while sentence correction, reading comprehension and critical reasoning are in the verbal section. The total test takes 4 hours. The analytical writing section has 2 essays of 30 minutes each. While the former is an analysis of an issue the latter is analysis of an argument. Qualitative and verbal sections are assigned 75 minutes each.
Analytical Writing Assessment Section: Analytical Writing Assessment consists of two two essays topics—Analysis of an Issue and Analysis of an Argument. Test takers are allowed 30 minutes to complete each one.
Quantative Section: After ten-minute break, you begin the Quantitative Section of the GMAT exam. This section contains 37 multiple-choice questions of either two question types, Data Sufficiency or Problem Solving. There are 24 questions on problem solving and 13 questions on data sufficiency. Test takers are allowed a maximum of 75 minutes to complete the section.
Verbal Section: This section contains 41 multiple-choice questions of three question types—Reading Comprehension, Critical Reasoning, and Sentence Correction. There are 13 questions on Reading Comprehension, 14 questions on critical reasoning and 15 questions on sentence correction. Test takers are allowed a maximum of 75 minutes to complete the entire section
TESTS FOR FIRST PROFESSIONAL DEGREE PROGRAMS
Test requirements for professional degrees such as medicine and law are very different. Applicants to a law school need to take the law school admissions test (LSAT) while those applying to a medical school take the USMLE. Graduates of foreign nursing schools seeking training or employment in the US must pass the Commission or Graduates Foreign Nursing School (CGFNS) exam. Graduates of foreign Veterinary schools seeking training or employment in the US need to pass the Education Commission on Foreign Veterinary Graduates (ECFVG) exam. Graduates of pharmacy take the Foreign Pharmacy Graduate exam (FPGE) if they wish to do further training or employment in USA.
Medical science examination
The Educational Commission for Foreign Medical Graduates (ECFMG), through a program of certification, assesses the readiness of graduates of foreign medical schools to enter residency or fellowship programs in the United States that are accredited by the Accreditation Council for Graduate Medical Education (ACGME).
ECFMG and its sponsoring organizations define a "foreign medical graduate" as a physician whose basic medical degree or qualification was conferred by a medical school located outside the United States, Canada and Puerto Rico. The medical school must be listed in the World Directory of Medical Schools published by the World Health Organization.
ECFMG certification provides assurance to directors of ACGME-accredited programs and to the people of the United States that graduates of foreign medical schools have met minimum standards of eligibility required to enter such programs. This certification does not guarantee that such graduates will be accepted into these programs in the United States, since the number of applicants frequently exceeds the number of positions available.
ECFMG certification is also a prerequisite for licensure to practice medicine in most states in the United States. To earn ECFMG certification, graduates of foreign medical schools are required to:
- pass a medical science examination (currently the Foreign Medical Graduate Examination in the Medical Sciences [FMGEMS] or Step 1 and Step 2 of the United States Medical Licensing Examination [USMLETM]) ;
- Pass the English language proficiency test; and
- Document completion of the registration to practice medicine in that country
A passing score on both a basic medical science test and a clinical science test must be achieved in order to meet the medical science examination requirement for ECFMG certification. Currently ECFMG administers the following medical science examinations for this purpose:
- Foreign Medical Graduate Examination in the Medical Sciences (FMGEMS Day 1 and Day 2).
- United States Medical Licensing Examination (USMLE) Step 1 and Step 2.
Applicants for ECFMG certification are permitted to combine the basic medical science test of one examination (FMGEMS Day 1 and Step 1) with the clinical science test of another examination (FMGEMS Day 2 or Step 2).
Eligibility: To be eligible for examinations administered by ECFMG, an applicant must be either a medical student officially enrolled in a medical school or a graduate from a medical school which was listed in the World Directory at the time of graduation.
Specific eligibility requirements with respect to students are as follows:
Basic Medical Science Examination - Students must have completed at least two years of medical school. In view of the design and content of the basic medical science examination, this eligibility requirement is interpreted to include those who have completed the basic medical science component of the medical school curriculum.
Clinical Science Examination - Students must be within 12 months of completion of the full didactic curriculum.
Step 1 and step 2 of the United States medical licensing examination (USMLE) - The United States Medical Licensing Examination (USMLE) provides a common evaluation system against which to measure knowledge and cognitive competence of applicants for medical licensure. It is a three-step examination for medical licensure in the United State (US). The three steps of the USMLE assess a physician's ability to apply knowledge, concepts, and principles that are important in health and disease and that constitute the basis of safe and effective patient care. Results of the USMLE are reported to medical licensing authorities in the United States and its territories for use in granting the initial license to practice medicine. The Federation of State Medical Boards (FSMB) of the United States, Inc and the National Board of Medical Examiners (NBME) sponsors USMLE.
The Step 1 of USMLE assesses whether one understands and can apply important concepts of the sciences basic to the practice of medicine, with special emphasis on principles and mechanisms underlying health, disease, and modes of therapy. It consists of multiple-choice questions. Some questions test the examinee's fund of information, but the majority of questions require the examinee to interpret graphic and tabular material, to identify gross and microscopic pathologic and normal specimens, and to solve problem through application of basic science principles.
Step 2 assesses whether one can apply medical knowledge and understanding of clinical science essential for the provision of patient care under supervision, and includes emphasis on health promotion and disease prevention. It further ensures that due attention is devoted to principles of clinical sciences that undergird the safe and competent practice of medicine.
Step 3 assesses whether one can apply medical knowledge and understanding of biomedical and clinical science essential for the unsupervised practice of medicine, with emphasis on patient management in ambulatory settings. It provides a final assessment of physician assuming independent responsibility for delivering general medical care.
The three steps are complementary to each other and form a continuum. Each examination presents materials within a consistent clinical context. However, the focus of the examination is somewhat different for each step, emphasizing basic mechanisms and principles in step 1, clinical diagnosis and disease pathogenesis in step 2, and clinical management in step 3.
The USMLE Compact Disc (CD) includes content information and sample test materials for each step, which can be practiced before the test.
Contact Email: usefibom@bom3.vsnl.net.in
Foreign Medical students/graduates may take step 1 and step 2 administered by ECFMG in selected ECFMG test centres throughout the world for purposes of ECMFG certification.
Hospital residencies and fellowships
Residencies and fellowships in hospitals in the United States must be obtained by individuals seeking admission to these training programs. ECFMG does not serve as an agent to obtain such positions. To apply for appointment applicants should:
- Write to hospitals in the United States to obtain the appropriate application. In addition, request information about the position and any requirements unique to the institution or the state. Some institutions and/or states have regulations relative to scores and/or number of attempts to achieve a passing score.
- A list of institutions that have programs accredited by the Accreditation Council for Graduate Medical Education (ACGME) may be found in the Directory of Graduate Medical Education Programs. Order forms for this directory may be obtained by writing to the: Order Department OP416792, American Medical Association, P.O. Box 109050, Chicago, Illinois 60610-9050.
- Request that the hospital write to ECFMG for an official institutional copy of your score report. Hospital program directors should send their written requests to the Director of Information Services. You may use a photocopy of a letter that presents proof of having passed an examination in making preliminary negotiations with hospitals. However, official score reports will be sent from ECFMG. ECFMG certification is a requirement to obtain a position.
- Apply to the National Resident Matching Program (NRMP). The deadline date for such application will be sometime in November. Applicants will be retained in the program only if they submit proof of having passed all of the examinations necessary for ECFMG certification
The residency match is announced in March for programs that start around July 1. Many hospitals in the United States look to the NRMP for their trainees, and do not appoint anyone who does not participate in the program.
The NRMP is a central clearing agency. There is no guarantee that applicants will be matched with any of their selected hospitals, since the number of applicants may be larger than the number of available positions.
Applicants may obtain additional information and the official agreement form by writing to the following address.
Executive Secretary National Resident Matching Program 2450 N. Street, NW Suite 201 Washington, D.C. 20037-1141, U.S.A. Telephone: (202) 828-0566
If necessary, obtain a visa to enter the United States.
Law school admission test (LSAT)
For seeking admission into law colleges in US one has to pass the Law School Admission Test (LSAT) similar to SAT (for undergraduate studies) and GRE, GMAT or USMLE.
LSAT is a half-day standardized test required for admission to all 200 law schools that are members of the Law School Admission Council (LSAC). It provides a standard measure of acquired reading and verbal reasoning skills that law schools can use as one of several factors in assessing applicants.
The test is administered four times a year at hundreds of locations around the world. Many law schools require that the LSAT be taken by December for admission in the following fall. However, taking the test earlier, in June or October, is often advised.
Almost all LSAC member law schools in the United States require that one registers for the Law School Data Assembly Service (LSDAS). The registration fee for the LSAT is $103.
For Sample tests contact -LSAC, Box 2000-T, Newtown, PA 18940
Commission on graduates of foreign nursing schools exam (CGFNS):
Commission on Graduates of Foreign Nursing Schools Exam (CGFNS), mission is to provide leadership in healthcare education, registration and licensure to the global nursing and professional healthcare communities. Although state licensure requirements for nursing usually consist of passing the National Council Licensure Examination for RNs (NCLEX-RN), the CGFNS can be an important first step towards attempting the NCLEX-RN. The NCLEX-RN is solely offered in the US, whereas the CGFNS is offered in many parts of the world.
CGFNS offers a certification program and qualifying exam, which most US State Boards of Nursing require in order to be eligible to apply for licensure within that state. The CGFNS certification program is a three-part program designed to predict an applicant's likelihood of passing the NCLEX-RN examination and becoming licensed as a registered nurse in the United Sates. The three parts of the program include a credentials review, a qualifying exam of nursing knowledge and an English language proficiency examination. Applicants must successfully complete all three parts of the certification program in order to earn the CGFNS certificate. In order to be eligible for the CGFNS certification program, a nurse must be educated and hold both initial and current registration/licensure as a first level, general nurse as defined historically by the International Council of Nurses (ICN). A first-level nurse is called a registered or professional nurse in most countries. A general nurse must have obtained theoretical instruction and clinical practice in a variety of nursing areas.
All applicants are required to submit a passing score on the TOEFL, TWE and TSE or the MELAB, parts 1, 2 and 3 and the speaking test. The CGFNS qualifying examination is offered three times annually in more than 40 locations throughout the world.
Address for Contact - CGFNS, 3600 Market Street, Suite 400, Philadelphia, PA 9104-2651 USA, email support@cgfns.org
Addresses for reference are as follows:
MCAT
Registration ACT
PO Box 414,
IOWA City, IA 52243
USA
Educational Council for Foreign Medical Graduates
3600 Market Street, Suite 400
Philadelphia, PA 19104-2651, USA
CGFNS
3600 Market Street, Suite 400,
Philadelphia, PA 19104-2651, USA
Foreign Pharmacy Graduate
Examination Commission
One East Wacker Dr, Suite 2210
Chicago IL 60601, USA
ECFVG
American Veterinary Medical Association
330 North Meacham Road,
Schaumburg IL 60195
USA
Law School Admission Services,
LSAT Box 2000-T, Newtown PA 18940, USA
Fax 215-968-119
United States Medical Licensing Examination,
Educational Commission for Foreign Medical Graduates (ECFMG)
3624 Market Street, 4th Floor,
Philadelphia, PA 19104-2651, USA
WHAT INFLUENCES NUMBER OF FOREIGN STUDENTS’ INTAKE
USA colleges are more liberal in accepting foreign students during than others.
Post World War II years witnessed a sharp growth in USA higher education facilities. Enrollments soared in the fifties and sixties. There were additions in teaching and administrative staff as well as new facilities largely with private as well as public support.
The 70's saw, however, a halt in this growth. Costs rose, public and private funding stopped and consequently students’ enrollments decreased due to cuts in financial support and stringent economies. Grants and government funds for foreign students were reduced to almost one-fourth. Students with high academic performance and those who were financially independent, however, continued to be enrolled. Late 80's again witnessed a dramatic exodus of Indian students to USA. This time the emphasis on technological progress and inputs got many foreign students enrolled for study in engineering, computer science, environment science, etc. This trend prevailed in the late 90's.
The point readers need to keep in mind is that for a foreign applicant these trends in government priorities and spending are bound to influence their chances of finding placement on a competitive college campus
